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Text 1: From the History of the Railways

Modern railways differ greatly from the early ones. The first railways used horses for cartoon trains and were made of wood. In 1767 an ironmaster Abraham Darby started making track of cast iron. The get-go attempts to utilise the steam engine to draw passenger and freight trains were made in 1808 past an English inventor Richard Trevithick.

In 1829 George Stephenson, an English engineer, constructed the world'south starting time steam locomotive. He also built the first public railway in England between Stockton and Darlington. He called his new steam engine "Locomotion". Another railway was built in 1830 to link Manchester and Liverpool (its length was 48 km).

The early locomotives were small and wearisome. They were not every bit rubber and powerful every bit they are today. Some accidents were caused because of broken rails or wheels. However, the early on trains did not have brakes. Almost accidents happened when two trains crashed into each other, considering there were no proper signals.

The first railway carriages were small and uncomfortable. They looked like phase coaches. In England the carriages for the start class passengers had three compartments with soft seats and doors at either side. In that location was a high seat at the back for the guard and a rack on the roof for luggage. The second course carriages besides had roofs, just depression sides and difficult seats. The third class passengers had to ride in uncovered wagons without seats at all. These early trains had neither heating nor lighting.

The prototype of the modernistic sleeping motorcar appeared in the middle of the 19^th century. Its inventor was George Yard. Pullman, an American publisher.

The first steam locomotives in Russia were built by the Cherepanovs, father and son. So thanks to them Russia was among the kickoff countries to use steam traction.

The first Russian passenger 28-km railway was built between St. Petersburg and Tsarskoye Selo. The railway was used past the Tsar'south family for travelling to the countryside. The structure of the St. Petersburg - Moscow railway was finished in l851. Information technology operated successfully, though many people doubted the possibility of using steam engines in the Russian winter. In 1891 the building of the world's longest Trans-Siberian Railway began; it was put into performance in 1905.

Questions for word:

1. What was used to draw the offset railways?

2. What were the start railways fabricated of?

iii. Who made the start endeavour to utilize the steam engine to

depict trains?

iv. Who invented the beginning steam locomotive?

5. Were the early railways rubber or unsafe?

half dozen. How did the compartments of the start railway

carriages look like?

7. Who was the inventor of the mod sleeping car?

viii. Who built the first Russian locomotive?

9. What commencement railways in Russia exercise y'all know?

10. When was the earth's longest railway put into

operation?

Text 2. The Principal Railway Notions

Railway arrangement is a very complex machinery. It implies rail, rail equipment, rolling-stock and train operation.

Rail is 1 of the basic features of a railway. It is too chosen the permanent way. Information technology consists of rails, ties and ballast. The distance betwixt the rails is called the gauge. The standard approximate in most countries is 1,435 mm while in Russia it is 1,524 mm. Rails rest on sleepers which are laid on ballast (in the United states sleepers are chosen ties). The ballast is the foundation of the railway runway.

Rail equipment consists of track, sleepers, ballast, artificial structures, signals, railroad constructions (railway stations, tunnels, bridges). They enable the railway to operate successfully.

Railway Signalling makes railways rubber and quick. Safe depends on many factors. It is adamant by the condition of the track and indicate techniques. Very important features of the railway prophylactic engineering are signal and block systems.

Rolling stock is the term describing all the vehicles that move on a railway. It normally includes both powered and unpowered vehicles, such as locomotives, carriages, coaches and wagons. There are diverse types of trains designed for particular purposes. A passenger train includes rider-carrying vehicles. Freight trains comprise wagons or trucks rather than carriages. Long-altitude trains travel between many cities and regions of a state, and sometimes cross several countries. High-speed trains are designed for passenger travel, and some high speed systems offer freight service. Trains connecting cities tin can be divided into ii groups. Inter-city trains practise not halt at small stations, trains that serve all stations are commonly known as local trains. Commuter trains are used for shorter distances serving the city and its suburbs.

Traffic and convey capacity of the railways is called performance service. Efficient functioning mostly depends on the fourth dimension-tabular array.

Questions for word:

1. What does the term rail mean?

2. What is the gauge?

three. What is the gauge standard in Russia?

4. What is the foundation of the track?

5. What is the aim of railway signalling?

6. What does the rail equipment consist of?

seven. What does the term rolling-stock mean?

8. What does the term operation service imply?

nine. What types of trains do yous know?

10. What does efficient operation depend on?

Text3: British Railways

Britain has one of the most efficient and heavily used railway systems in the world. Both freight and long-altitude passenger services at present operate without subsidy from the Government and in direct competition with other forms of transport. British Runway has а computerized freight information and traffic command arrangement known equally TOPS (Total Operations Processing Arrangement). In Britain а network of city to metropolis services operates at speeds of up to 100 mph (161 km/h). On some lines the speed is raised to 125 mph (201 km/h).

The 1970s saw British Rail successfully introduced high speed diesel train services. The InterCity 125 High Speed Train (HST) was introduced on some services, and the InterCity brand was adopted. This created an increment in passengers using the railways and improved British Runway's finances. The InterCity125 was an outstanding success and is still in widespread employ.

British Rail also started development of the globe's first tilting train – the Avant-garde Passenger Railroad train (APT) achieving 150 mph (241 km/h). The APT is powered either past electric motors or by gas turbines, and it tin use existing track. The object of the tilt was to minimise the discomfort to passengers acquired by taking the curves at high speed.

Between 1994 and 1997 British Rail was privatized and passed to Railtrack. Privatization made an comeback in passenger services. But the public epitome of runway travel was severely damaged because of the series of meaning accidents acquired by a railroad train going through a red low-cal and by a track fragmenting due to the evolution of microscopic cracks.

Following these accidents Railtrack imposed over 1200 speed restrictions across its network and started an extremely plush nationwide rail replacement program.

In contempo years, there has been a pregnant increase in demand for rail send in Great britain. Railways operate in straight competition with road hauliers and airlines.

Questions for word:

ane. Exercise British Railways have a subsidy from the Government?

2. What is another proper noun for British computerized freight information and traffic control organization?

3. What speed do British urban center to city services operate at?

4. When and why did British Rail introduce HST and APT?

5. What do the abbreviations "HST" and "APT" mean?

six. What speed do "HST" and "APT" trains attain?

seven. What happened in the British railway services betwixt 1994 and 1997?

8. What were the reasons of the railway accidents later privatization?

9. What did the government exercise to meliorate the situation on the track track?

10. What do British railways compete with?

Text iv: Russian Railways

Railway systems are essential to the economy and infrastructure of any country. A highly developed railway network is vital to Russian federation as well, partly because of its huge territory. Runway connects Russia's regions and provides services to main cities and towns. Much of the population relies on the railways because of rather cheap transportation.

Russian railways are one of the largest in the earth. The total length of track is 85,500 km. The bulk of railways in Russia are electrified. The national approximate standard is 1,524 mm. Modern Russian railways are transcontinental, they provide international passenger and freight service betwixt Europe and Asia. The Russian railway system transports most of the state's industrial goods and raw materials. It also carries the majority of passenger traffic. More one billion passengers and one billion tons of freight travel via Russian Railways annually.

Actually, the rail network of Russia comprises 17 railways such every bit Oktyabrskaya Railway, Northern Railway and Moscow Railway. This division is based on historical and regional principle.

Nevertheless, the density of the railways in Russia is still comparatively low. The country should enlarge its railway system, particularly in the Eastward with its relatively poor route connection.

The rolling stock used on Russian railways is reliable in operation and environmentally friendly. For instance, the locomotives possess high performance in quick acceleration and in tractive and braking ability. The passenger coaches are modernised and comfortable. They also may have some extra facilities - conditioning, toned windows, or Television. High-speed railway transportation is the priority goal of the quantum development of rail send in Russia.

To conclude, new technologies and equipment besides every bit high quality of service make Russian railways a competitive manner of ship.

Questions for discussion:

1. Railways are essential to the economy of any state, aren't they?

two. Why does the population of Russia rely on railways?

3. What is the length of Russian railways?

4. Are modern Russian railways transcontinental?

five. Are Russian railways electrified?

half-dozen. What freight and passenger turnover does the Russian rail account for?

vii. How many railways does the Russian track system consist of?

eight. Is the rolling stock used on Russian railways reliable and modern?

9. Why should Russia enlarge its railway network?

10. What makes Russian railways a competitive way of ship?